Diabetes mellitus and advances in diabetes research
![](https://www.texilajournal.com/thumbs/article/Diabetes_mellitus.jpg)
Abstract:
Diabetes mellitus (DM)
is a major global health problem and it affects more than 200 million people
worldwide. It is the most common serious metabolic disorder in humans. Diabetes
is characterised by hyperglycaemia as a result of a relative or absolute lack
of insulin or the actions of insulin on its target tissues or both. The disease
is classified into two major groups, Type 1 or Insulin-Dependent Diabetes
Mellitus (IDDM) and Type 2 or Non-Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM).
Type 1 diabetes represents approximately 5–10 % of all cases of diabetes and it
is characterised by an auto-immune mediated destruction of the beta cells of
pancreas, leading to a severe reduced capacity of these cells to produce
insulin with resultant insulin deficiency. Type 2 diabetes represents more than
90 % of all cases and it is characterised by insulin resistance and relative
insulin deficiency. It is mainly due to a genetic disposition, environmental
and human behavioural factors, including sedentary lifestyle, overtly rich
nutrition, affluence and obesity. Both forms of diabetes are associated with
long-term complications that affect most of the major organs of the body, such
as the eyes, brain, heart, blood vessels, kidneys and nervous system.
Complications can be suppressed or prevented by good metabolic control. During
the past few years, tremendous advances have been made in early diagnosis and
in controlling and preventing the disease, understanding the complications and
developing new forms of treatment. Research has focused on several areas of DM
including the insulin pump, ion channelopathies, pancreatic islet transplant,
control of obesity, salivary and pancreatic insufficiencies, contractile
dysfunction of the heart and understanding the causes of retinopathy,
neuropathy and nephropathy. This review focuses on the disease itself and new
research into a number of areas of its long-term complications.
Key words: Diabetes mellitus, pancreas, insulin, momordica charantia, hypoglycaemia,
cardiomyopathy, glucose
References:
[1.] Adeghate E & Donáth
T (1990). Distribution of neuropeptide-Y and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide
immunoreactive nerves in normal and transplanted pancreatic tissue. Peptides
11: 1087-1092
[2.] Adeghate E & Donáth
T (1990). Morphological findings in long-term pancreatic tissue transplants in
the anterior eye-chamber of rats. Pancreas 5: 298-305
[3.] Adeghate E, Ponery AS,
Ahmed I & Donáth T (2001). Comparative morphology and biochemistry of
pancreatic tissue fragments transplanted into the anterior eye chamber and
subcutaneous regions of rat. Eur. J. Morphol. 39: 257-268
[4.] Adeghate E (1998). Host-graft
circulation and vascular morphology of pancreatic tissue transplants in rats. Anat.
Rec. 251: 448-459
[5.] Adeghate E (1999). Effect
of subcutaneous pancreatic tissue transplants on streptozotocin-induced
diabetes in rats. II. Endocrine and metabolic functions. Tiss. and Cell 31:
73-83
[6.] Ahmed I, Adeghate E,
Sharma AK, Pallot DJ & Singh J (1998). Effects of Momordica charantia
fruit juice on islet morphology in the pancreas of the streptozotocin-diabetic
rat. Diabetes Res Clin Pract.
40: 145-151
[7.] Ahmed I, Chandranath I,
Sharma A K, Adeghate E & Singh J (1999). Effect of Momordica charantia
fruit juice on normal and diabetic animals. J. Physiol. 520P:
22P.
[8.] Ahmed, I., Cummings,
E., Sharma, A.K., Adeghate, E and Singh, J (2004). Beneficial effects and
mechanism of action of Momordica charantia fruit juice in the treatment of
streptozotocin-induced diabetes mellitus in rats. Molec Cell Biochem. 261
(1/2): 63-70.
[9.] Ahmed I (1999). Effects
of Momordica charantia fruit juice on experimental diabetes and its
complications. PhD Thesis. University of Central Lancashire.
[10.] Alterman SC (1997). The
Insulin Pump and Oral Drugs for Diabetes: In: How to control Diabetes.
Ballantine Pubs. Group, New York. pp92 – 101 and pp121 – 126.
[11.] Attaruri-Rahman, A and
Zaman, K(1989). Medicinal plant with hypoglycaemic effects. J. Ethanopharmacol.
26:1-55.
[12.] Amos A, McCarty D,
& Zimmet P (1997). The rising global burden of diabetes and its
complications; estimates and projections to the year 2010. Diabetic Med.
14: S1-S85
[13.] Andersson A, Petersson
B, Hellerstrom C, Hallberg A, Jansson L, Nilsson B, Reibring L, Sandler S &
Swenne I (1980). Transplantation of the endocrine pancreas: A new approach
towards the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Acta Med Scand 639:
43-48
[14.] Atkinson M &
Maclaren N (1994). The Pathogenesis of Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus. N.
Engl. J. Med. 331: 1428–1436
[15.] Baro DM (1991). Excitation-contraction
coupling and cardiac contractile force. Pub. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht. Netherlands.
[16.] Beden G, DeSantis R,
Chen X, Morris M & Badoza F (1993). Glucose metabolism and leg blood flow
after pancreas/kidney transplantation. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol. 76:
1229-1233
[17.] Bentley FR &
Garisson RN (1992). Superior results with combined kidney-pancreas transplants.
Am Surgeon 58: 136-140
[18.] Berdanier CD (1991). The
BHE rat: A animal model for the study of non-insulin diabetes mellitus. FASEB
J. 5: 2139 – 2144
[19.] Bergman RN & Ader
M (2000). Free fatty acid and pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Trends
Exocrinol. Metabolism. 11: 351 – 356
[20.] Bilous, RW (2002). Understanding
Diabetes. Pub. British Med. Assoc., Family Doctor Pub, Oxford.
[21.] Bracken, NK (2003)
Contractile dysfunction in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat heart. PhD
thesis, University of Central Lancashire.
[22.] Bracken, NK, Woodall,
A.J, Howarth, FC and Singh, J (2004). Voltage dependence of contraction in
STZ-induced cardiac myocytes. Molec Cell. Biochem. 261 (1/2):235-243.
[23.] Bracken, NK, Singh, J,
Winlow, W & Howarth, FC (2003). Mechanism underlying contractile
dysfunction in streptozotocin-induced Type 1 and type 2 diabetic
cardiomyopathy. In: Athersclerosis, Hypertension and Diabetes (Eds: Pierce,
G.N., Nagano, M., Zahradka, P. and Dhalla, N.S.). Pub: Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Boston, pp 387-408.
[24.] Bray GA (1997). The
Zucker-fatty rat: a review. Federation Proceedings, 36: 148 – 153
[25.] Brownlee M (2001). Biochemistry
and molecular cell biology of diabetic complications. Nature, 414:
813–820
[26.] Cawley T (1788). A
singular case of Diabetes, consisting entirely in the quality of urine, with an
inquiry into the different theories of that disease. London Med J. 9:
286 – 308
[27.] Crisa L et. al.
(1992). Autoimmune Diabetes Mellitus in BB rats. Diabetes Metabolism. Rev.
8; 9 – 37
[28.] Cummings, EF (2000). Effect
of insulin and Momordica charantia fruit juice extracts on glucose and
ion transport in L6 rat muscle cell. MSc (by Research) Thesis, University of
Central Lancashire.
[29.] Cummings E, Hundial H,
Wackerage H, Woods N & Singh J (2002). Effect of Momordica charantia
fruit juice on glucose and amino acid transport in L6 myotubules. J. Physiol.
545P, 14P
[30.] Cummings, E, Hundal,
HS, Wackerhage, H, Hope, M., Belle, M, Adeghate, E and Singh, J
(2004).Momordica charantia fruit juice stimulates glucose and amino acid
uptakes in L6 myotubes. Molec Cell Biochem. 261 (1/2): 99-104.
[31.] Day, C, Cartwright, T,
Provost, J and Bailey, CJ (1990). Hypoglycaemic effects of Momordica charantia extract.
Planta Med.56 :426-429.
[32.] Day, C, (1990).
Hypoglycaemic compounds from plants In: New Antidiabetic Drugs (Eds.Bailey, CJ
and Flat, PR), Pub: Nishimura Ltd, Japan, pp 267-278.
[33.] Dafoe DC, Naji A,
Perloff LJ & Barker CF (1990). Pancreas and islet autotransplantation.
(review). Hepato-Gastroenterol 37: 307-315
[34.] Dafoe DC, Wang X,
Tafra L, Berezniak R & Lloyd RV (1992). Studies of composite grafts of
fetal pancreas and fetal liver in the streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat. Adv
Exp Med Biol 321: 171-177
[35.] Dobson M (1776). Medical
Observations and Inquiries, London, Vol 259.
[36.] Duan RD &
Evanson-Albertsson C (1990). Altered synthesis of some secretory proteins in
pancreatic lobules isolated from streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Pancreas.
5: 136 – 143.
[37.] Duan RD &
Evanson-Albertsson C (1992a). The effect of pretranslational regulation on
synthesis of pancreatic co-lipase in streptozotocin-induces diabetes in rat. Pancreas.
7(4): 465 – 471
[38.] Duan RD, Cheng Y &
Evanson-Albertsson C (1992b). Effect of emertamine on exocrine and endocrine
pancreatic function in normal and diabetic rats. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest.
52(7): 579 – 584
[39.] Dunne, MJ, Cosgrove,
K, Shepherd, RM, Anysley-Green, A & Lindley, KJ (2004). Hyperinsulinism in infancy:
From basic science to clinical research. Physiol. Rev. 84: 239-275.
[40.] Elinder CG, Anderson
J, Bolinder G & Tyden G (1992). Effectiveness of low-dose cotrimazole
prophylaxis against pneumocystis carinii pneumonia after renal and/or pancreas
transplantation. Transplant Internatl 5: 81-84
[41.] Ewart HS & Klip A
(1995). Hormonal regulation of the Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase: mechanisms underlying
rapid and sustained changes in pump activity. Am J Physiol 269:
C295 – C300
[42.] Fallow, GD &
Singh, J (2004). The prevalence, type, and severity in cardiovascular disease
in diabetic and non – diabetic patients: A matched paired retrospective
analysis using coronary angiographyas the diagnostic tool. Molec Cell Biochem 261
(1/2): 263-269
[43.] Fernstad R, Tyden G,
Brattstrom C, Skoldefors H, Carlstrom K, Groth CG & Pousette A (1989). Pancreas
specific protein. New serum marker for graft rejection in pancreas transplant
recipients. Diabetes 38: 55-56
[44.] Garau, C, Cummings, E,
Phoenix, DA & Singh, J (2003). Beneficial effects and mechanism of action
of Momordica charantia in the treatment of diabetes mellitus: a mini review.
Int J. Diabetes Metab. 11:46-55.
[45.] Geering K (1994). Na,
K-ATPase. Curr Opin Nephrology Hypertension 6: 434 – 450
[46.] Gisper W H and Biessil
G J. (2000). Cognition and Synaptic plasticity in diabetes mellitus. Trends
Neuroscience. 23: 542 – 549
[47.] Goto Y, Kakizaki M
& Masaki N (1975). Spontaneous diabetes produced by selective breeding of
normal Wistar rats. Proc. Jap. Acad. 51: 80 – 85
[48.] Grenier N, Rousseau H,
Douws C, Brichaux JC, Potaux L & Masson B (1993). External iliac vein
stenosis after segmental pancreatic transplantation: treatment by percutaneous
endoprosthesis. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 16: 186-188
[49.] Grewal HP, Garland L,
Novak K, Gaber L, Tolley EA & Gaber AO (1993). Risk factors for
postimplantation pancreatitis and pancreatic thrombosis in pancreas transplant
recipients. Transplantation 56: 609-612
[50.] Grossman E &
Messerli FH (1986). Diabetic and hypertensive heart disease, Ann. Int. Med.
125: 304 – 310
[51.] Gruessner RW, Nakhleh
R, Tzardis P, Schechner R, Platt JL, Gruessner A, Tomadze G, Najarian JS &
Sutherland DE (1993). Differences
in rejection grading after simultaneous pancreas and kidney transplantation in
pigs. Transplantation 56: 1357-1364
[52.] Gruessner RW, Nakhleh
R, Tzardis P, Schechner R, Platt JL, Gruessner A, Tomadze G, Najarian JS &
Sutherland DE (1993). Differences in rejection grading after simultaneous
pancreas and kidney transplantation in pigs. Transplantation 56:
1357-1364
[53.] Gruessner RW, Tzardis PJ,
Schechner R, Heil J, Matas AJ, Najarian JS & Sutherland DE (1990). En bloc
simultaneous pancreas and kidney allotransplantation in the pig. J Surg Res
49: 366-370
[54.] Harris M & Zimmet
P (1997). Classification of Diabetes Mellitus and other categories of glucose
intolerance. In: International Textbook of Diabetes Mellitus, 2nd
Edition (Eds. Alberti, K, Zimmet, P and De Fronzo, R), pp 9-23 (Wiley,
Chichester).
[55.] Harrison L & Kay
T, Colman P & Honeyman M (1999). Diabetes in the new mellineum. The
Endocrinology and Diabetes Research Foundation of the University of Sydney;
85-100.
[56.] Howarth FC & Singh
J (1999). Altered handling of calcium during the process of excitation –
contraction – coupling in streptozotocin – induced diabetic hearts. Int. J.
Diabetes. 7: 187 – 197
[57.] Jansson L, Walberg J
& Andersson A (1993). Differences in the vascular response to terbutaline
in the native and transplanted rat pancreas. Europ Surg Res 25:
383-389
[58.] Jayasooriya AP, Sakono
M, Yukizaki C, Kawano M, Yamamoto K & Nobuhiro F (2000). Effects of Momordica
charantia powder on serum glucose levels and various lipid parameters in
rats fed with cholesterol-free and cholesterol-enriched diets. J Ethnopharmacol. 72: 331-336
[59.] Julien J (1999). Cardiac
complications in Non Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus. J. Diabetes
Complications. 11: 123 – 130
[60.] Juma LOM, Singh J,
Pallot DJ, Salido GM & Adeghate E (1997). Interactions of islet hormones
with acetylcholine in the isolated rat pancreas. Peptides. 18(9):
1415 – 1422
[61.] Kaji H, Inoue K, Yun
M, Uchida K, Sugiyama T & Tobe T (1992). Qualitative and quantitative
changes in islet cells of autotransplanted pancreas in dogs in relation to
glucose metabolism. Pancreas 7: 642-648
[62.] Kallen R, Borgtrom A
& Ahren B (1990). Urinary insulin level as an indicator of graft function
after porcine pancreatic transplantation. Transplantation 49:
1036-1039
[63.] Kalman R, Alder JH,
Lazarovici G, Bar-on H, & Ziv E (1995). The efficiency of sand rat
metabolism is responsible for the development of obesity and diabetes. J.
Basic Physiol. 4(1-2): 57 – 68
[64.] Kalman R, Lazarovici
G, Bar-on H & Ziv E (1996). The sand rat (Psamunomys obesus): morphologic, physiologic and biochemical
characteristics of a model for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Contemp.Topic Amer.
Assoc. Laborat. Animal Sci. 35(5): 67 – 70
[65.] Kannel WB & Mc Gee
DL (1979). Diabetes and cardiovascular disease. JAMA. 241:
2035–2038
[66.] Karunanayake, EH,
Welihinda, J, Sirimanne, SR & Sinnidorai G (1984).Oral hypoglycaemic
activity of some medicinal plants of Sri Lanka. J Ethanopharmacol. 11 : 223
231.
[67.] King H, Aubert R,
& Herman W (1998). Global burden of diabetes, 1995 – 2025. Prevalence,
numerical estimates and projections. Diabetes Care, 21: 1414–1431
[68.] Kingsmore SF, Schwab
SJ (1993). Pneumonia due to pneumocystis carinii in a transplant recipient with
normal arterial oxygen tension and normal radiographic findings. South Med J
86: 1052-1053
[69.] Klip A & Paquet MR
(1990). Glucose transport and glucose transporters in muscle and their
metabolic regulators. Diabetes Care. 13: 228 – 243
[70.] Knoop M, McMahon RF
& Hutchinson IV (1990). Staining of native and grafted exocrine rat
pancreas by an interleukin-2 receptor specific monoclonal antibody. Acta
Histochem 88: 51-52
[71.] Kramp RC & Renold
AE (1981). Subcutaneous, isogenic transplantation of duct-ligated pancreas in
streptozotocin diabetic mice. Hormone storage as a function of time and of the
recipient's initial glycaemic state. Metabolism 30: 644-648
[72.] Kumar PJ & Clark M
(2002). Clinical Medicine. Pub: Saunders (London), pp. 1069-1121.
[73.] Linder R, Sziegoleit
A, Brattstrom C, Tyden C & Groth GG (1991). Pancreatic elastase 1 after
pancreatic transplantation. Pancreas 6: 31-36
[74.] Linder R, Tyden G,
Tibbel A & Groth CG (1990). Late graft pancreatitis. Transplantation
50: 257-261
[75.] Lingrel JB &
Kuntzweiler T (1994). Na+, K+-ATPase. J Biol Chem 269:
19659-19666
[76.] Mahay, S (2004) The
effects of ageing and diabetes mellitus on the rat parotid gland. PhD thesis.
University of Central Lancashire.
[77.] Mahay, S, Singh, J,
Adeghate, E, Lindley, MZ, & Rolph, C (2004). The effects of streptozotocin
–induced diabetes mellitus on the morphology, secretory function and acyl lipid
profiles in the isolated rat parotid gland. Molec Cell Biochem. 261(1/2):
175-181.
[78.] Mahay, Y, Winlow, W,
Adeghate, E & Singh, J (2002). Effects of diabetes mellitus on
secretagogue-evoked secretory responses and on morphological changes in the
isolated rat parotid gland. J. Physiol. 543.P: 14P
[79.] Mata, AD, Marques, D, Rocha,
S, Francisco, S, Santos, C, Mesquita, MF & Singh, J (2004). Effects of diabetes
mellitus on salivary secretion and its composition in the human. Molec. Cell
Biochem. 261 (1/2): 137-142.
[80.] McEnvoy RC & Hegre
OD (1979). Syngeneic transplantation of foetal rat pancreas. Effect of insulin
on the growth and differentiation of the pancreatic implants after reversal of
diabetes. Diabetes 28: 141-146
[81.] Meir P & Yaniv Z
(1995). An in vitro study on the effect of Momordica charantia on
glucose uptake and glucose metabolism in rats. Planta Med. 1:
12-16
[82.] Moller DE (2001). New
drug targets for type 2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome. Nature 414:
821–827
[83.] Mordes JP et. al,
(1981). Animal Models of Diabetes. Am. J.Med. 70: 353 – 360
[84.] Mossimann R, Rausic C
& Mirkovicht V (1978). Prevention of diabetes in pancreatectomized dogs by
autotransplantation of pancreatic tissue in the liver. Helv Chirg Acta 43:
241-25
[85.] Nakai I, Oka T,
Kaufmann DB, Field MJ & Sutherland DE (1993). En bloc kidney and whole
pancreaticoduodenal transplantation with bladder drainage in the rat:
microsurgical technique and outcome. Microsurgery 14: 215-220
[86.] Nakhleh RE, Sutherland
DE, Tzardis P, Schechner R & Gruessner RW (1993). Correlation of rejection
of the duodenum with rejection of the pancreas in a pig model of
pancreaticoduodenal transplantation. Transplantation 56:
1353-1356
[87.] Nakhleh RE, Sutherland
DE, Tzardis P, Schechner R & Gruessner RW (1993). Correlation of rejection
of the duodenum with rejection of the pancreas in a pig model of
pancreaticoduodenal transplantation. Transplantation 56:
1353-1356
[88.] Notkins AL (1979). The
Causes of Diabetes. Scientific Am. 241: 62 – 73
[89.] Nozawa M & Otsu I
(1990). Experience in rat pancreas transplantation at Meikai University
(Review). Microsurgery 11: 145-151
[90.] Okabayashi Y, Otsuki
M, Ohki A, Suehito I, & Baba S (1988). Effect of diabetes mellitus on
pancreatic exocrine secretion from isolated perfused pancreas in rats. Digestive
Dis. Sci. 33(6): 711 – 717
[91.] Olaniyi, AA (1975). A
neutral constituent of Momordica foetida. Lloydia 38: 361-362
[92.] Olausson M, Nyberg G,
Norden G, Frisk B & Hedman L (1991). Outcome of pancreas transplantation in
Goteborg, Sweden 1985-1990. Diabetologia 34: S1-S3
[93.] Otsuki M &
Williams JA (1982). Effects of diabetes mellitus on the regulation of enzyme
secretion by isolated rat pancreatic acini. J. Clin. Invest. 70:
148 – 156
[94.] Otsuki M, Akiyama T,
Shirohara H, Nakano S, Furtumi K & Tachiba I (1995). Loss of sensitivity to
cholecsytokinin stimulation of isolated pancreatic acini from genetically
diabetic rats. Am. J. Physiol. 268(3): E531 – E536
[95.] Owyang C (1993). Endocrine
changes in pancreatic insufficiency. In: The Exocrine Pancreas: Biology,
Pathology and Disease (2nd Ed); (ED. V.L.W.Go et al). Pub: Raven
Press Ltd., N.Y. pp. 803 – 813
[96.] Patel, R Singh, J
& Shervington, A (2004c). Effects of streptozotocin on mRNA expression of
amylase and CCK –A receptor in the rat pancreas. UCLan Sci Proc. 1:9-11
[97.] Patel, R, Singh, J,
Yago, MD, Valchez, E, Martinez-Victoria, E & Manas, M (2004a). Effect of
insulin on pancreatic juice secretion in healthy and diabetic anaesthetized
rats. Molec Cell Biochem. 261 (1/2): 105-110.
[98.] Patel, R, Yago, MD,
Manas, M, Martinez-Victoria, E, Shervington, A & Singh, J (2004b).
Mechanism of pancreatic insufficiency in streptozotocin-induced rats: Effect of
cholecystokinin-octapeptide. Molec Cell Biochem. 261 (1/2): 83-89
[99.] Platel K &
Srinivasan K (1999). Plant food in the management of diabetes mellitus:
Vegetables as potential hypoglycaemic agents. Nahrung 41: 68-74
[100.] Patti ME & Khan
CR (1998). The Insulin Receptor : a critical link to glucose homeostasis and
insulin actions. J. Basic Clin. Physiol Pharmacol. 9: 89 – 109
[101.] Perkal M, Marks C,
Lorber MI & Marks WH (1992). A 3-year experience with serum anodal
trypsinogen as a biochemical marker for rejection in pancreatic allografts.
False positives, tissue biopsy, comparison with other markers and diagnostic
strategies. Transplantation 53: 415-419
[102.] Perkins JD, Munn SR,
Barr D, Ferguson DC & Carpenter HA (1990). Evidence that the soluble
interleukin 2 receptor level may determine the optimal time for
cytoscopically-directed biopsy in pancreaticoduodenal allograft recipients. Transplantation
49: 363-366
[103.] Pilkis SJ &
Granner D (1992). Molecular physiology of the regulation of hepatic
gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 54:
885–909
[104.] Pons. J.A. &
Stevenson, DS (1943). Momordica charantia – a medicinal plant. Pub.
Health and Tropical Med. 19: 196-200
[105.] Purcell LJ, Mottram
PL & Mandel TE (1993). Immunosuppresive antibody treatment prolongs graft
survival in two murine models of segmental pancreas transplantation. Immunol
Cell Biol 71: 349-352
[106.] Reisman JD &
Viets DH (1992). Gross haematuria following combined kidney-pancreas
transplantation with pancreaticocystostomy. J Urology 147:
1095-1096
[107.] Remuzzi G, Ruggenenti
P & Mauer SM (1994). Pancreas and kidney/pancreas transplantation:
experimental medicine or real improvement? Review. Lancet 343:
27-31
[108.] Rynearson EH &
Hilderbrand AG (1941). Progress in Internal Medicine: Metabolism and Diabetes. Arch
Intern Med. 68: 134 – 175
[109.] Sanchez De Badajoz E
& Vara Thorbeck C (1990). Pancreatic transplantation in the rat. An
experimental model. Z Exp Chirg Transpl Kunst Org. 23: 26-28
[110.] Sarkar S, Pranava M
& Marita R (1996). Demonstration of the hypoglycemic action of Momordica
charantia in a validated animal model of diabetes. Pharmacological Res.
33: 1-4
[111.] Sattiel AR & Khan
CR (2001). Insulin signalling and the regulation of glucose and lipid
metabolism. Nature 44: 799–806
[112.] Schaffer SW &
Wilson GL (1993). Insulin resistance and mechanical dysfunction in hearts of
Wistar rats with streptozotocin induced non-insulin dependent diabetes
mellitus. Diabetologia. 36: 195 – 199.
[113.] Schaffer SW, Allo S,
Punna Sand White T (1991). Defective response to cAMP-dependent protein kinase
in non-insulin dependent diabetic heart. Am. J. Physiol. 261:
E369 – E376
[114.] Schaffer SW (1991). Cardiomyopathy
associated with non-insulin dependent diabetes. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 107:
1 – 20
[115.] Setsi, G, Fedreci, M,
Hribal, ML, Lauro, D, Sbraccia, P & Lauro, P (2001).Defects of insulin
receptor substrate (IRS) system in human metabolic disorders. FASEB, J 15:
2099-2111.
[116.] Shafrir E (1997). Diabetes
in Animals: Introduction to the understanding of Diabetes by study of its
aetiopathology in animal models: In: Ellenberg and Rifkin’s Diabetes Mellitus:
Theory and Practice. Pub: Saunders (Lond).
[117.] Sharma VN, Sogani RL,
& Arora RB (1950). Role of Momordica charantia in the treatment of
diseases. Indian J. Med. Res. 48: 471 – 477
[118.] Sharma, AK, Ahmed, I,
Tadayyon, M, Ponery, As, Aloamaka, P, Asood, G & Pallot, DG (1996). The
beneficial effects of Momordica charantia fruit juice on streptozotocin
–induced diabetes and hypertension in rats. Int J. Diabetes 4, 29-38.
[119.] Shepherd PR &
Kahn BB (1999). Glucose transporters and insulin action. New Eng J Med 341:
248-257
[120.] Shibib BA, Khan LA
& Rahman R (1993). Hypoglycaemic activity of Coccinia indica and Momordica
charantia in diabetic rats: depression of the hepatic gluconeogenic
enzymes glucose-6-phosphatase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase and elevation of
both liver and red-cell shunt enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Biochem
J. 292: 267-270
[121.] Shimoni Y, Ewart AS,
& Steverson D (1968). Type 1 and 2 diabetes produce different modifications
of potassium ion current in rat heart: role of insulin. J. Physiol. 507:
485 – 496
[122.] Silverman M (1991). Structure
and function of hexose transporters. Annu Rev Biochem. 60:
757-794
[123.] Singh J, Adeghate E,
Salido GM, Pariente JA & Juma LMO (1998a). Interactions of islet hormones
with cholecystokinin-octapeptide-evoked secretory responses in the isolated
pancreas of normal and diabetic rats. Exp. Physiol. 84: 20 – 38
[124.] Singh J, Yago M D
& Adeghate E (1998b). Role of insulin, glucagons, somatostatin,
cholecystokinin and nerve stimulation in the interaction between the endocrine
and exocrine pancreas in normal and diabetic conditions in rats. Int. J.
Diabetes. 6: 105 – 121
[125.] Singh, J, Yago, MD
& Adeghate, E (2001). Involvement of cellular calcium in exocrine
pancreatic insufficiency during streptozotocin –induced diabetes mellitus.
Archive Physiol Biochem. 15 (3/4): 252-259
[126.] Sitasawad SL, Shewade
Y and Bhonde R (2000). Role of bittergourd fruit juice in stz-induced diabetic
state in vivo and in vitro. J Ethnopharmacology. 73:
71-79
[127.] Smith, WA (1992). Urinary
trypsin levels observed in pancreas transplant patients with
duodenocystostomies promote in vitro fibrinolysis and in vivo bacterial
adherence to urothelial tissue. Urol Res 20: 409-413
[128.] Sofrankova A, &
Docray GJ (1983). Cholecystokinin and secretin induced pancreatic secretion in
normal and diabetic rats. Am. J. Physiol. 244: G370 – G374
[129.] Stratta RJ, Taylor
RJ, Ozaki CF, Bynon JS, Miller SA, Knight TF, Fischer JL, Neumann TV, Wahl TO,
Duckworth WC et al. (1993). A comparative analysis of results and
morbidity in type I diabetics undergoing preemptive versus post-dialysis combined
pancreas-kidney transplantation. Transplantation 55: 1097-1103
[130.] Sutherland DER,
Moudry KC & Fryd DS (1989). Result of pancreas transplant registry. Diabetes
38: 85-87
[131.] Tamura K, Kin S,
Nagami H, Yano S, Naitoh A, Nakagawa M & Nakase A (1992). Heterotopic
autotransplantation of the distal pancreas segment after total pancreatectomy
for cancer of the head of pancreas. Pancreas 7: 664-671
[132.] Tamura K, Kin S,
Nagami H, Yano S, Naitoh A, Nakagawa M & Nakase A (1992). Heterotopic
autotransplantation of the distal pancreas segment after total pancreatectomy
for cancer of the head of pancreas. Pancreas 7: 664-671
[133.] Tamura K, Yano S,
Itakura M, Hashimoto K, Nakagawa M & Nakase A (1993). Heterotopic
autotransplantation of the pancreas segment after pylorus-preserving total
pancreatectomy: a case report of successful surgical treatment of chronic
pancreatitis. Surg Today 23: 836-840
[134.] Tamura K, Yano S, Kin
S, Nagami H, Itakura M, Nakagawa M, Nakase A & Tsuchiya R (1993). Heterotopic
autotransplantation of a pancreas segment with enteric drainage after total or
subtotal pancreatectomy for chronic pancreatitis. Inter. J. Pancreatol. 13:
119-127
[135.] Thorens B (1993). Facilitated
glucose transporters in epithelial cells. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 55:
591-608
[136.] Touraine F, Malcus C,
Pouteil-Noble C & Touraine JL (1991). Soluble interleukin-2 receptor (S
IL-2R) in renal and pancreatic transplantation. Eur. Cyt. Network 2:
47-50
[137.] Vad BG. (1960). Place
of Momordica charantia in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Maharashtra
Med. J. 6: 733-745
[138.] Vaharen M (1998). Glucose
Intolerance, cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. Current Opinion
Neurology. 11: 673 – 677
[139.] Welihinda J,
Karunanayake EH, Sheriff MHR & Jayasinghe KSA (1986). Effect of Momordica
charantia on glucose tolerance in maturity onset diabetes. J
Ethnopharmacology. 17: 277-282
[140.] West KM (1978). Epidemiology
of Diabetes and its Vascular Lesions. New York: Elsevier.
[141.] White H E. (1988). The
IRS Signalling System: a network of docking proteins that mediate insulin
actions. Mol. Cell Biochem. 182: 3 – 11
[142.] Williams J A &
Goldfine ID (1993). The insulin acinar relationship. In: The Exocrine Pancreas:
Biology, Pathology and Disease (Eds. V.L.W. Go et al) Pub. Raven Press, N.Y.,
pp. 789 – 792
[143.] Williams, G &
Pickup, JC (1998) diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. In:
Handbook of Diabetes. Pub: Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp1-2.
[144.] Wright EM (1993). The
intestinal Na+/glucose cotransporter. Annu. Rev. Physio. 55:
575-589
[145.] Woodall, AJ, Singh,
J, Howarth, FC & Bracken, NK, (2004). Halothane inhibits contraction and
calcium mobilization in streptozotocin-induced rat ventricular myocytes. Molec
Cell Biochem. 261 (1/2): 251-261.
[146.] Yago, MD, Adeghate E
& Singh J (1999). Interactions between the endocrine and exocrine pancreas.
Effects of islet hormones, secretagogues and nerve stimulation. In: “Neural
regulation in the vertebrate endocrine system: Neuroendocrine Regulation”. (Ed.
R.A. Prasada Rao, R. Peters). A review chapter, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Pub.
(N.Y.), pp. 197 – 217
[147.] Zimmet P (1998). Diabetes
epidemiology as a key to diabetes research. Diabetologia, 42:
499–518
[148.] Zimmet P &
Lefebore P. (1996). The Global NIDDM Epidemic: Treating the disease and
ignoring the symptom. Diabetologia. 39: 1247 – 1248
[149.] Zimmet P, Alberti K G
M M, & Shaw T (2001). Global and societal implications of diabetes
epidemic. Nature. 414: 782 – 787