Abstract:

Digital sexual violence correlates with cyberbullying victimization, leading to the manifestation of psychological distress and diverse forms of suicidality such as thoughts, attempts, and self-harm. The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence and association between exposure to digital sexual violence and mental health outcomes (i.e., mental distress and suicide risk) for boys and girls aged 13 to 24 in Namibia. This cross-sectional study utilized national data from the 2019 Namibia Violence Against Children and Youth Survey (VACS) involving 5,191 participants, with 4,211 being girls and 980 boys. Chi-square tests were used to determine the prevalence estimates and significant association for bivariate, and two logistic regression models were applied to assess the significant association for multivariate. The prevalence results indicated that exposure to digital sexual violence was associated with higher rates of moderate/severe mental distress in the past 30 days (boys [64.5%] vs. girls [65.2%]) and increased lifetime risk of suicide (boys [27.4%] vs. girls [40.1%]). Similarly, regression results showed that exposure to digital sexual violence was associated with a higher likelihood of reporting moderate/severe mental distress in the past 30 days (boys: 95% CI = 4.67-22.09; girls: 95% CI =2.75-4.88) and a lifetime risk of suicide (boys: 95% CI =2.16-10.63; girls: 95% CI = 2.68-4.75). In order to reduce mental distress and suicide risk behaviors, interventions should include implementing a safer online environment through digital literacy programs, reducing stigma, offering mental health counseling services, and establishing crisis hotlines for victims of digital sexual violence in Namibia.

References:

[1] Dlamini, R. and F. Nkambule, Information and Communication Technologies' Pedagogical Affordances in Education. 2020.

[2] Venditto, B., B. Set, and R.N. Amaambo, Sexualization and dehumanization of women by social media users in Namibia. Sexes, 2022. 3(3): p. 445-462.

[3] Zviyita, I. and A. Mare, Same threats, different platforms? Female journalists’ experiences of online gender-based violence in selected newsrooms in Namibia. Journalism, 2023: p. 14648849231183815.

[4] Rita, M.N. and F.B. Shava. Chatbot driven web-based platform for online safety and sexual exploitation awareness and reporting in Namibia. in 2021 International Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Big Data, Computing and Data Communication Systems (icABCD). 2021. IEEE.

[5] End Violence Against Children. Protecting Children in Nambia from Online.

[6] Sexual Exploitation and Abuse: The Way Forward. 2023 [cited 2023 October 4th, 2023]; Available from: https://www.end-violence.org/sites/default/files/paragraphs/download/DH_Namibia_advocacy.

[7] Henry, N. and A. Powell, Technology-facilitated sexual violence: A literature review of empirical research. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 2018. 19(2): p. 195-208.

[8] Cooper, K., et al., Adolescents and self-taken sexual images: A review of the literature. Computers in human behavior, 2016. 55: p. 706-716.

[9] Hong, S., et al., Digital sextortion: Internet predators and pediatric interventions. Current opinion in pediatrics, 2020. 32(1): p. 192-197.

[10] Medrano, J.L.J., F. Lopez Rosales, and M. Gámez-Guadix, Assessing the links of sexting, cybervictimization, depression, and suicidal ideation among university students. Archives of Suicide Research, 2018. 22(1): p. 153-164.

[11] Wachs, S., et al., How are consensual, non-consensual, and pressured sexting linked to depression and self-harm? The moderating effects of demographic variables. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2021. 18(5): p. 2597.

[12] Jonsson, L.S., et al., Online sexual abuse of adolescents by a perpetrator met online: a cross-sectional study. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 2019. 13(1): p. 1-10.

[13] Say, G.N., et al., Abuse characteristics and psychiatric consequences associated with online sexual abuse. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 2015. 18(6): p. 333-336.

[14] Srivastava, A., et al., Digital sexual violence and suicide risk in a national sample of sexual minority adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2023. 38(3-4): p. 4443-4458.

[15] Joleby, M., et al., Experiences and psychological health among children exposed to online child sexual
abuse–a mixed methods study of court verdicts. Psychology, Crime & Law, 2021. 27(2): p. 159-181.

[16] Nicolla, S. and A.J. Lazard, Social media communication about sexual violence may backfire online experiment with young men. Journal of Health Communication, 2023. 28(1): p. 28-37.

[17] Kessler, R.C., et al., short screening scales to monitor population prevalences and trends in non-specific psychological distress. Psychological medicine, 2002. 32(6): p. 959-976.

[18] Prochaska, J.J., et al., Validity study of the K6 scale as a measure of moderate mental distress based on mental health treatment need and utilization. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 2012. 21(2): p. 88-97.

[19] Hendrick, M.T., Depression’s Connection to Self-Harming Behavior in Adolescents. 2016.

[20] Doyle, C., E. Douglas, and G. O'Reilly, The outcomes of sexting for children and adolescents: A systematic review of literature. Journal of Adolescence, 2021. 92: p. 86-113.

[21] Yar, M., The policing of Internet sex offences: pluralised governance versus hierarchies of standing. Policing and Society, 2013. 23(4): p. 482-497.

[22] Bucci, S., et al., A digital intervention to improve mental health and interpersonal resilience in young people who have experienced technology-assisted sexual abuse: protocol for a nonrandomized feasibility clinical trial and nested qualitative study. JMIR Research Protocols, 2023. 12(1): p. e40539.

[23] Kanel, K., A guide to crisis intervention. 2019: Cengage Learning.

[24] Bostwick, J.M., et al., Suicide attempt as a risk factor for completed suicide: even more lethal than we knew. American Journal of Psychiatry, 2016. 173(11): p. 1094-1100.